Withering-type botanical microscope, 1780
The “Withering-type Microscope” is named for its inventor, Dr. William Withering (1741-1799), an English physician and botanist who graduated with a degree in medicine 1766 in Edinburgh. Inspired by the taxonomical work and systematic classification of Carl Linnæus (1707-1778), Withering (1776) applied the Linnaean taxonomical system of classification to British plants in a seminal, two volume work, A Botanical arrangement of all the vegetables naturally growing in the British Isles. The earliest reference to a small botanical microscope of Withering’s design appeared in the first edition of this book. There, Withering indicated this microscope was developed for field dissections of flowers and other plant parts. While there is no surviving example of this exact design, close relatives of this type do exist, made either completely of brass or of ivory with brass pillars. Ivory models can be tentatively dated to 1776-1785, as by 1787 a newer model with a hollowed stage in an all-brass configuration already predominated. In turn, it was preceded by the brief appearance of a transitional brass model but with solid stage of ivory or horn (seen here). This version is extremely rare and must have been produced in very small numbers. By 1787 all these varieties were not recorded anymore in the literature.
Withering-type botanical microscope, 1780
The “Withering-type Microscope” is named for its inventor, Dr. William Withering (1741-1799), an English physician and botanist who graduated with a degree in medicine 1766 in Edinburgh. Inspired by the taxonomical work and systematic classification of Carl Linnæus (1707-1778), Withering (1776) applied the Linnaean taxonomical system of classification to British plants in a seminal, two volume work, A Botanical arrangement of all the vegetables naturally growing in the British Isles. The earliest reference to a small botanical microscope of Withering’s design appeared in the first edition of this book. There, Withering indicated this microscope was developed for field dissections of flowers and other plant parts. While there is no surviving example of this exact design, close relatives of this type do exist, made either completely of brass or of ivory with brass pillars. Ivory models can be tentatively dated to 1776-1785, as by 1787 a newer model with a hollowed stage in an all-brass configuration already predominated. In turn, it was preceded by the brief appearance of a transitional brass model but with solid stage of ivory or horn (seen here). This version is extremely rare and must have been produced in very small numbers. By 1787 all these varieties were not recorded anymore in the literature.
References: SML: A242712; Goren 2014.
References: SML: A242712; Goren 2014.
Prof. Yuval Goren's Collection of the History of the Microscope
Prologue: Science and Microscopy in Victorian England
In the 18th century, there was a significant increase in invention, discovery, and development across various fields of science. Natural laws and progress gained more acceptance among the general public, and there was growing interaction between science, government, and industry. Science education became more formalized, and internationalism in science became more prevalent.
The authority of science in contexts shaped by the Industrial Revolution and the sweeping social and cultural changes of the century also began to take shape. This led to the emergence of a new professionalism in science, with natural philosophy and natural history transforming into "science," and naturalists becoming professional scientists. In 1833, William Whewell coined the term "scientist" to distinguish what he and his colleagues were engaged in from philosophy. The Victorian era, to which Whewell belonged, also saw fundamental transformations in beliefs about nature and humans' place in the universe.
In the field of microscopy, there was a growing demand for better instruments, leading to innovations in machine tooling and greatly improved design and construction of the microscope's mechanical elements. As a result, many well-crafted instruments appeared. The first part of the 19th century also witnessed dramatic improvements in optics with the introduction of achromatic objectives. Lens systems were becoming perfected for use in exploring the microscopic world.
Gilbert & Co, Universal Microscope after Benjamin Martin, ca. 1780 (Inv. YG-22-004)
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This microscope presents the latest design of Benjamin Martin's Universal Microscope. It depicts Martin’s last improvements, later to be taken by the Adams' Improved and the Most Improved microscopes (to be adopted by W&S Jones). It is featured with a compass joint uniting the pillar nearly at the lowest end of the limb. This Universal Microscope of the 1770s and on featured the Bonanni spring-loaded removable stage, which can be seen in the Whipple compendium. However, the example seen here is signed on the foot Gilbert & Co. London. This may be explained in different ways.
The auction sale catalogue of Martin's stock after his bankruptcy and death, which was held from March 8th, 1782, is available in the MHS copy (Millburn, 1986b, pp. 73-88; Herring, 1782). The catalogue lists the instruments that were sold during the five-day event, however, it does not mention the names of the buyers. The stock included around 40 types of microscopes, seven of which were compound or double microscopes of different kinds, along with several unfinished instruments. A few other microscopes were also included in the optical cabinets. It is safe to assume that many of the major retailers of that time, such as George Adams Jr., Peter Dollond, John, William, and Samuel Jones, etc., purchased a significant portion of the stock. It is also likely that these makers signed their names on the unsigned instruments they bought and sold to materialize their investment. John Jones & Son (later W. & S. Jones of Holborn) acquired several items from the auction and advertised at least a dozen Martin's book titles in their catalogues (Millburn, 1986b, p. 75). According to Millburn (ibid), many entries in their general sales catalogues of instruments between 1787 and 1795 were copied directly from Martin's. This indicates that John Jones and his son William Jones were among the major buyers at the Martin sales. However, it is possible that other significant instrument makers of the time, such as Dollond, Adams, Nairne & Blunt, etc., also attended the auction and acquired unknown numbers of Martin's instruments, including his microscopes.
The Gilbert family had an outstanding reputation during the 18th and early 19th centuries for their exceptional skill in creating scientific instruments. John Gilbert the Elder was the first family member who gained prominence as a scientific instrument maker. He began trading in 1716 after serving an apprenticeship under John Johnson in 1709. He had several apprentices, including his son John Gilbert the Younger, who was enrolled in 1736. After becoming a freeman in the early 1740s, the family business started trading as Gilbert & Son. Unfortunately, there is no record of the elder Gilbert's date of death.
It is highly likely that the younger Gilbert was already trading under his own name during the mid-1750s. He had several apprentices under his wing, including his sons John (III) in 1764 and William in 1769. William eventually succeeded to his Father’s business around 1776 after receiving his freedom and continued to trade solely under the Gilbert name until his Father’s death in 1791, after which he departed on a number of complicated partnerships for the next ten years. His first venture was the partnership of Gilbert & Wright. Gabriel Wright (1740-1803) was a former employee of Benjamin Martin. Given that Benjamin Martin had employed Wright for many years, it is likely that he felt the time was ripe for new horizons. Wright's first venture was in partnership with Gilbert & Wright. His dvertising in 1782 continued the patronage of Martin’s old customer base.
"Most Improved" Type Microscope by Schmalcalder, 1810-26
This is the larger of two versions of a form of microscope, made (or rather, retailed) by C.A. Schmalcalder to a pattern called after W. & S. Jones. It was based on the 'Universal Compound Microscope', devised by George Adams Jr. and described in his 1787 book Essays on the Microscope. This was, in turn, inspired by Benjamin Martin's 'Universal Microscope' of the second half of the 18th century. After George Adams' death in 1795, his firm was continued by his brother, Dudley Adams. Within a few years, however, William and Samuel Jones bought the copyright to Adams' books, stock and workshop instruments. Hence, Adams' microscope was renamed 'W. & S. Jones Most Improved' and advertised as such in 1798. It was the best microscope of the pre-achromatic era, which summarized in a way the structural evolution of the English microscope over the length of the 18th century. However, it was far from perfection and extremely expensive, and with the introduction of the achromatic objective it was replaced by Lister-limb and Bar-limb microscopes.
The 'Jones Most Improved' model was most likely the first microscope type to be employed for serious research in geology, chrystallography and optical mineralogy.
Selected references: MHS 35727,
The microscope seen here is signed on the folding tripod base 'Schmalcalder 82 Strand London'. Charles Augustus Schmalcalder (1781 - 1843) was an inventor and optical instrument maker. He is famous for inventing the prismatic compass, which he made with great workmanship. He was born Karl August Schmalkalder in Stuttgart, Germany. He came to England in about 1800, where he worked in partnership with his son John Thomas Schmalcalder. On his retirement in 1839 the business was continued by his son (britishmuseum.org). Schmalcalder the elder worked in London at 6 Little Newport St. (1806-7), Strand (1812), 82 Strand (1810-26) & 399 Strand (1827-40) (collection.sciencemuseum).
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